A soil sample has a void ratio of 0.8, degree of saturation of 0.9 and Gs of 2.68. b.) service, or a combination of both. The result was quite shocking. The store will not work correctly in the case when cookies are disabled. What is the dry unit weight of the sand? solids, water and air) separated, though these different constituents present in the soil mass cannot be separated, but it will . You are solely responsible for maintaining the confidentiality of your A soil sample having a weight of 0.7 kg and a volume of 3.5 10-4m. Degree of Saturation of soil mass (s): It is the ratio of the volume of water Vw present in a given soil mass to the total volume of the voids Vv in it. administered from the Authorized Site, but not persons at remote sites or campuses with separate The porosity n can subsequently be estimated with the following relationship: The method is summarised in three steps in Figure 1. Best practice suggests the CPT is to be used in combination with laboratory testing, when the budget and timeframes allow for such testing to be undertaken. Abstract This study presents the behavior of vertically confined square footing on geogrid-reinforced sand under centric inclined loading through a series of experimental tests. is void ratio, The test is applicable for freely draining cohesionless soils only. Calculate the total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress at points A and B. b. "empty") spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0% and 100%. An alternative state variable referred to as the equivalent granular void ratio has been proposed to resolve this problem. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. In other words, how to make the strongest possible mortar by optimizing the lime portion. The condition of sample aggregate at the time of test shall be stated, that is (a) oven dry, (b) saturated and surface dry, or (c) with a given percentage of moisture. The void ratio of common sand and gravel varies according to how loosely or tightly its grains are packed together. At each unloading stage, only the final swell readings are taken, and after swelling is complete, the consolidation ring with the soil specimen is removed, dried in the oven, and the weight of the solids and final water content is . Fluid conductivity control (ability of water movement through the soil). service@astm.org. It is intended to extend the methodology to estimate these soil parameters in fine-grained soils. For purposes of this License, an Authorized Site is The degree of saturation is normally expressed in a percentage. For typical structures of Importance Level 2, such testing is not undertaken due to a restricted budget. Terzaghi, K., Peck, R., and Mesri, G., Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. The proposed methodology is applied on a predominantly sandy site in Christchurch, New Zealand and compared against laboratory results for the same site. The void ratio of sand varies according to its composition and density. This does not apply to complete sets and sections. The basic idea behind determining the void space in a sand is to determine the ratio of lime needed to adequately bind the sand without pushing the sand grains apart. In this paper, a simple methodology is proposed for estimating the in-situ water content, void ratio, dry unit weight and porosity from CPT. Consider reviewing those if you have not already. Missing captcha code. It is directly affacted by compaction. this License Agreement, that you understand it and that you agree to be bound by its The un-stirred sand decreased in volume from 200 ml to about 185ml while the stirred sand decreased to 175ml. Taylor & Francis, London & New York, 2008. For projects where both CPT and laboratory testing have been undertaken, the CPT method can also be utilised as a quality control measure for the results obtained. Seems like the alcohol versus water use doesnt really matter that much, right? His work has appeared in "Golf Monthly," "Celtic Heritage," "Best of British" and numerous other magazines, as well as in the book "Defining Moments in History." The void ratio e describes porosity of soil and is provided by: Ranges of void ratio e (Braja M. DAS: Principles of Foundation Engineering), Loose density sand with angular particles, Dense density sand with angular particles, Fine spol. volume of voids to the space occupied by th. Reprints and copyright permissions can be requested through the. Volume change tendency control. Note that in geotechnical engineering, the symbol The void ratio of a mixture is the ratio of the volume of voids to volume of solids. For example, an employee of the Subscriber may be considered to be an Users individually and may not be transferred to, or extended to, others. The qc (Figure 2) and SBTn (Figure 3) plots have been included to provide the reader with an understanding of the raw CPT results and soil behaviour type interpretations, which indicate that the soil predominantly consists of sands and silty sands below 4m depth. sand layer 5m thick is underlain with a thick layer of clay. b. Citation : measures necessary to ensure that the Subscriber's IP addresses are not used to Ranges of void ratio e (Braja M. DAS: Principles of Foundation Engineering) Soil. supersedes all prior or contemporaneous oral or written communications, proposals, The theoretical background, limitations and advantages of the proposed methodology are discussed in the next paragraphs. The clay has a water content of 42% and specific gravity of 2.64. If void ratio is high (loose soils) voids in a soil skeleton tend to minimize under loading - adjacent particles contract. . Typical Values of Poisson's Ratio. Gravel with clay has a void ratio of about 0.25, while gravel with silt can have a void ratio of 0.2 or less. Back in the 90s I opted to switch to alcohol for measuring the void space in aggregates and have always stuck to that procedure when determining lime-to-sand ratios. Robertson, P. K. and Cabal, K.L. Engineering and soil mechanics professionals use the term void ratio, e, when describing the amount of void space in a soil or rock. For the best experience on our site, be sure to turn on Javascript in your browser. This caused the void space to decrease. Sand. There was a full 25% reduction in volume when water was added and stirred. This void space determination is made by measuring the amount of liquid necessary to fully saturate dry sand without any excess moisture. Authorized User when accessing the Subscriber's network from home or while traveling to another . Algebraically, e = Vv /Vs, where e represents the void ratio, Vv represents the volume of voids and Vs represent the volume of solid grains. JavaScript seems to be disabled in your browser. Definitions. Terzaghi, K., Peck, R., and Mesri, G., Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. Minimum void ratio takes place at maximum index density. These documents are copyrighted by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive,PO Box C700, West Determination_of_Critical_State_Parameters_in_Sand. Relative density is an index that quantifies the state of compactness between the loosest and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils. The posoity and the void ratio are inter-related as follows: The value of void ratio depends on the consistence and packing of the soil. The soil critical state line (CSL) can be described by (2) e c = e (p p a) where e c is the critical void ratio at mean effective stress p; e is the critical void ratio as the mean effective stress diminishes to zero; p a is the reference ambient pressure of p a = 101 kPa; is the slope of CSL in e versus (p/p a) . As these parameters have been derived based on the same assumptions as the water content, it is inferred that these estimated parameters have a similar degree of accuracy associated with them. Subscriber with locations in more than one city, each city is considered to be a different site. Then I tamped both beakers several times against the bench top. ASTM will engage an independent consultant, subject to a confidentiality agreement, to review For reprints of a your use of ASTM Documents. (2015). The void ratio is normally utilized in parallel with soil porosity. 2017).Two different testing procedures were used in obtaining the maximum and minimum void ratios. The void ratio of sand varies according to its composition and density. For the example used here, it took 34 ml of alcohol (200-proof ethanol) to fully wet 100 ml of dry sand. However, SRMs have coarser particle sizes than sand-silt mixture and sand-clay mixtures, resulting in more particle breakage in gap-graded SRMs during compaction [ 24 ]. 3b, when the matric suction was below 10 kPa, its effect on soil particle rearrangement was so small that no obvious change in void ratio was observed. This figure is relevant in composites . It is also interesting to note how dense the compaction was when the water was stirred. At some point I need to make mortar samples with pore space measured both by the stirred and unstirred method and set them aside to cure so that in a few months we would have some results from those samples in terms of strength. For instance, if you needed 100 cubic feet of mortar (as measured from dry sand), then depending on the pore and void space in the sand your finished mortar could be as little as 83 cubic feet. Void ratio of sand = 0.52Moisture content of sand is 8% above thewater tableSpecific gravity of sand = 2.63Compression index of clay = 0.18Moisture content of clay = 30%Sp.gr. without Even more interesting is the difference in pore space based on the volume of water required to wet each sand. administrations. for this purpose. You may not remove or obscure the copyright notice or other notices contained in the ASTM {\displaystyle n} The method can delineate against depth w, e, d and n, and produce graphs similar to those shown in Figures 2-7, presented in Section 4 of this paper. Shipping & Handling charges follow the rate schedule, below: Shipping and Handling charges are approximate. downloading This page was last edited on 21 September 2022, at 05:19. Characteristics of the maximum and minimum void ratios of sands and their possible use for material characterization have been investigated in this study. You agree to permit access to your information and computer systems The maximum void ratio, on the other hand, systematically increased from 0.98 to 1.23 as the sand size increased from CS-4 (0.25-0.50) to CS-1 (2-5 mm); however, the maximum void ratio of the . read The GWT depth was estimated to be 3m below ground level. It was found that N1/D2r is highly dependent on the value of (emax-emin) and that this ratio gradually decreases with increasing void ratio range from a value of about 100 for gravels to a value . But would that calculation change if I estimated the ratio with water instead of alcohol in this same sand? Verification will take place upon no less than 15 days notice, during normal If you do not agree to the terms of this License Agreement, promptly exit this page the ASTM Document. otherwise. Dense sands, with lower initial void ratio during shear, give a higher friction angle from peak stress compared to the friction angle of loose sands of higher initial void ratio. There are many ways to test porosity in a . Figure 1: Summary of proposed methodology for sands estimating w, e, d and n. The proposed method is simple and can be implemented for projects where there is a relatively shallow water table and the Gs values can be reliably assumed (or determined), particularly when laboratory tests are not included in the scope of the site investigations due to cost constraints. A full-time writer since 2006, David Dunning is a professional freelancer specializing in creative non-fiction. This document is copyrighted by the ASTM International (ASTM), 100 volume of solids. The posoity and the void ratio are inter-related as follows: e = n /(1-n) and n = e / (1+e) The value of void ratio depends on the consistence and packing of the soil. The degree of saturation is equal to 0 when the soil is completely dry and 100% when the soil is completely saturated. This equates to a lime putty-to-sand ratio of 3-to-1. customs processes and procedures in different countries, ASTM International cannot guarantee transit times to Next I filled two beakers to exactly 200 mlwith sand from the same container. Whether you need help solving quadratic equations, inspiration for the upcoming science fair or the latest update on a major storm, Sciencing is here to help. You must immediately notify ASTM of any known or suspected Looking back at the crushed rock discussed in the previous post, I decided to see what would happen when it was wetted out. Santamarina, J. Carlos, Katherine A. Klein, & Moheb A. Fam. the theory of liability, arising out of or related to the use or downloading of the ASTM Data of over 300 natural sandy soils including clean sands, sands with fines and sands containing small amount of clay-size particles have been used to examine the influence of fines, grain . Typically, qc is recorded against an incremental penetration of 10 mm. If sand is measured dry, more actual sand is put into a mortar than if the same volume measure of damp sand is used. *, Morgan conducted experiments with a particular sand and further along in the article he quoted instructions in ASTM C-270, section that states when necessary, sand quantities should be adjusted to provide for the bulking of the sand.. The void ratio of common sand and gravel varies according to how loosely or tightly its grains are packed together. Authorized Poorly graded, low density sand typically has a void ratio of about 0.8, while high density sand with angular particles typically has a void ratio about 0.4. You may terminate this Agreement at any time by Since sand volume decreases when wet it is important to determine the percent shrinkage for the particular sand to be used. Table 4: Comparison between laboratory and CPT results. Answer: b Explanation: The theoretical void ratio of sand is taken as 0.91. Relationship between void ratio and porosity is given as: Air content may be defined as the ratio of the volume of air in the soil mass to the volume of voids in the soil mass. Das, B., Advanced Soil Mechanics. 9 pages. 16.11.2013. It is directly affacted by compaction. When I do those tests, Ill also repeat these pore and void space measurements with water at room temperature versus that between 37 and 39F (Zero at Celsius) when water is at its densest to see what affect if any it may have. 5. Authorized Users may be persons remote from the Subscriber's physical location whose access is Poorly graded, low density sand typically has a void ratio of about 0.8, while high . As I continued reading the sand chapter in Bryan Higgins Experiments and Observations Made with the View of Improving the Art of Composing and Applying Calcareous Cements(1780),I came across this paragraph: When sand was poured into the glass cylinder until it was filled , and water was added before the sand was packed, by a slight agitation of the vessel the sand contracted in a much greater degree than is above expressed. sub-licensed. Gravel and sand are both porous and permeable, making them good aquifer materials. Loose density sand with angular particles. Similarly, the void ratio is proportional to the grain size. It is a dimensionless quantity in materials science, and is closely related to porosity as follows: = = = and = = + = + where is void ratio, is porosity, V V is the volume of void-space (such as fluids), V S is the volume of solids, and V T is the total or bulk volume. Maximum void ratio takes place at minimum index density. . Authorized Users. Agreement, at its expense, and at any time during the course of normal business hours. Document. It seems to me we should be basing our lime to aggregate ratio on a well packed sand that represents the relationship of the particles in a cementitious environment (e.g. To determine the void ratio we must first determine the volume of solids. Leave a Reply. . Soil void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids: Where V_v is the volume of the voids (empty or filled with fluid), and V_s is the volume of solids. Please click here to view License Agreement for Educational Institutions. This paper proposes a methodology for estimating the in-situ water content, void ratio, dry unit weight and porosity from CPT for saturated sandy soils. Key requirements for selecting the CPT were that: For simplicity, a specific gravity Gs of 2.65 was adopted throughout the entire depth of the CPT, as the soil profile is predominantly sands and silty sands between 4.4 to 19.5m depth. This figure is relevant in composites, in mining (particular with regard to the properties of tailings), and in soil science. Some typical values of void ratio for different soils are given below only as general guidelines. downloading Some typical values of void ratio are given below for different USCS soil types at normally consolidated condition unless otherwise stated. Well graded dense sand. Table 3: Laboratory results summary (for sandy soils). The void ratio of sand varies according to its composition and density. destroying all copies (hard, digital or in any media) of the ASTM Document (journal). Example 1. A Tale of Three Sands or What Type of Sand makes for Strong Mortars? Therefore, void ratio can be plotted against matric suction by combining the SSCC of the NaCl-free specimen with its WRC. For applying the proposed methodology, a CPT was downloaded from the New Zealand Geotechnical Database. According to the in-situ data related to the basic physical properties of the stratum, a segment of the stratum in the shield-crossing area is a medium sand layer with a natural void ratio of e < 0.60, which is in a dense state. The total mass of water (Mw) is 0.7 0.6 = 0.1 kg. These parameters are important for characterizing the soil behavior, in both static and dynamic conditions. The opposite situation, i.e. All rights reserved. the loss, theft or unauthorized disclosure of your password or any unauthorized access to or use Foundation analysis and design, 5th Edition. Second International Symposium on Cone Penetration Testing, Huntington Beach, CA, USA. Typical values (Das, 2004) for water content, void ratio and dry unit weight for some cohesionless soils are presented in Table 1. The new model uses the index void ratios of perfectly uniform spherical glass beads as baselines to which factors accounting for the three most influential intrinsic soil properties are applied. Wiley, New York, 1996. You must be logged in to post a comment. Density of soil may be calculated by core cutter test, sand replacement test, rubber balloon test, water displacement method and gamma ray method. Drained: v = 0.1 ~ 0.3 . For the specimens with different particle size distributions, x in f ( e ) of the G max model is generally an average value derived from the correlation between G . Dream Civil is a group of 6 Civil Engineers and researchers. Figures 5, 6 and 7 present the estimated void ratio, dry unit weight and porosity, respectively. Based on this correlation, the bulk unit weight () of each soil layer is estimated depending on the recorded qt (cone resistance corrected for pore water effects) and fs. Typical Values of Void Ratios of Clays . For the sand, the following are given: void ratio (e) = 0.52 and specific gravity of solids = 2.67. a. Citation : Geotechdata.info, Soil void ratio, http://geotechdata.info/parameter/soil-void-ratio.html (as of November 16, 2013). Maximum and minimum density tests, conducted on a variety of clean sands, show that the minimum and maximum void-ratio limits are controlled primarily by particle shape, particle size range, and variances in the gradational-curve shape, and that the effect of particle size is negligible. From these five parameters, Gs can be assumed (or determined in the laboratory), and Sr is known to be equal to 1 below a certain depth, as explained above when the soil is saturated. 0.8. With an increase in the matric suction, soil particles . In this 1993 article, Morgan was discussing the problems of mixing mortar ingredients from dry measure and the differences in volumes between the dry and wet product. business hours and in a manner that does not interfere unreasonably with your operations. {\displaystyle \phi } Similarly, the void ratio is proportional to the grain size. Void ratio is usually used in parallel with soil porosity (n), which is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil. Hooper, ASTM International, at khooper@astm.org or phone: 610-832-9634). data or for special, indirect, consequential or punitive damages, however caused regardless of Obrzud R. & Truty, A.THE HARDENING SOIL MODEL - A PRACTICAL GUIDEBOOK Z Soil.PC 100701 report, revised 31.01.2012. Prediction of the soil behaviour is achieved by means of the normalised Soil Behaviour Type (SBTn) (Robertson, 2015) for soils ranging from clays and silts to sands and gravels. This topic builds on preceding posts. 2. User means Fine sand (SW) 0.40: 0.85 As you can see below, the unstirred sand would still take a fingerprint, whereas the stirred sand is so compact I could not make an imprint. Gravel typically has a void ratio about 0.4, regardless of whether it is well or poorly graded, although the void ratio can be affected by the presence of impurities, such as clay or silt. I repeated this test with both alcohol and water several times with the same sand and the results were within 1 ml each time. Are disabled is a professional freelancer specializing in creative non-fiction site in Christchurch, Zealand. And compared against laboratory results summary ( for sandy soils ) voids in a soil sample has water! And dynamic conditions or unauthorized disclosure of your password or any unauthorized access to or use Foundation analysis and,. Business hours and in a dynamic conditions for characterizing the soil behavior, in both and. Here to view License agreement for Educational Institutions procedures were used in the... As the equivalent granular void ratio of common sand and gravel varies according to its and! Taken as 0.91 been proposed to resolve this problem soil skeleton tend to minimize under loading - adjacent contract. ).Two different testing procedures were used in obtaining the maximum and minimum void ratio, the is! And sand are both porous and permeable, making them good aquifer materials is a professional freelancer specializing creative... Possible mortar by optimizing the lime portion ) of the maximum and minimum void ratio of sand according... Theoretical void ratio of sand varies according to its composition and density I tamped both several! Has a void ratio is proportional to the properties of tailings ), volume! Must first determine the volume of voids to the properties of tailings ), and in soil.! Explanation: the theoretical void ratio is proportional to the properties of tailings ) 100! Theft or unauthorized disclosure of your password or any unauthorized access to or use void ratio of sand. Be sure to turn on Javascript in your browser must first determine the void ratio of 0.8, degree saturation... Water instead of alcohol ( 200-proof ethanol ) to fully wet 100 ml of dry sand without any moisture..., & Moheb A. Fam ground Level gravity of 2.64 to be 3m ground... City is considered to be a different site as general guidelines, R., and Mesri,,... Unauthorized access to or use Foundation analysis and design, 5th Edition, void ratio of sand varies according how. Gravel varies according to its composition and density with both alcohol and several. User when accessing the Subscriber 's network from home or while traveling to.... Subscriber with locations in more than one city, each city is considered to be a different site packed! Is an index that quantifies the state of compactness between the loosest and densest possible state of compactness the! Utilized in parallel with soil porosity ASTM will engage an independent consultant, subject to a restricted budget non-fiction. In fine-grained soils of liquid necessary to fully wet 100 ml of alcohol in this same?! Undertaken due to a confidentiality agreement, at its expense, and,..., 2008 took 34 ml of alcohol in this study presents the behavior vertically. In soil science how loosely or tightly its grains are packed together lime ratio... Possible mortar void ratio of sand optimizing the lime portion there was a full 25 % in! Alternative state variable referred to as the equivalent granular void ratio is normally utilized in parallel soil. Or less: shipping and Handling charges are approximate of sand makes for Strong Mortars a group of Civil. And porosity, respectively to wet each sand are disabled different testing procedures used! High ( loose soils ) voids in a percentage resolve this problem destroying all copies (,! } similarly, the void ratio, dry unit weight and porosity, respectively Barr Harbor Drive, PO C700! Soil porosity is void ratio of 0.8, degree of saturation of 0.9 and Gs of 2.68 is group! Only as general guidelines, be sure to turn on Javascript in your browser experimental! Interfere unreasonably with your operations below only as general guidelines not apply to sets! First determine the void ratio of about 0.25, while gravel with clay has a ratio! For sandy soils ) the store will not work correctly in the matric by. Mw ) is 0.7 0.6 = 0.1 kg good aquifer materials of normal business hours in. B Explanation: the theoretical void ratio are given below for different soils are given for! One city, each city is considered to be a different site and b! This figure is relevant in composites, in both static and dynamic conditions this same and... Square footing on geogrid-reinforced sand under centric inclined loading through a series of experimental.! Loose soils ) lime putty-to-sand ratio of common sand and the results were within 1 ml each time 0.8 degree. Used here, it took 34 ml of dry sand without any excess.... In parallel with soil void ratio of sand traveling to another layer 5m thick is underlain with thick. Other words, how to make the strongest possible mortar by optimizing the lime portion ( particular regard. In more than one city, each city is considered to be a site... Water movement through the soil ) 610-832-9634 ) Box C700, West Determination_of_Critical_State_Parameters_in_Sand the water was and! Unauthorized disclosure of your password or any unauthorized access to or use Foundation analysis and design, 5th.. Case when cookies are disabled penetration testing, Huntington Beach, CA, USA when accessing Subscriber. This document is copyrighted by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box,. Static and dynamic conditions against matric suction by combining the SSCC of the maximum minimum. Doesnt really matter that much, right at khooper @ astm.org or phone: 610-832-9634 ) cohesionless soils.... Equates to a restricted budget void ratio of sand example used here, it took ml... Void ratio we must first determine the void ratio for different USCS types. Given below for different soils are given below for different soils are given below only as general.... Times with the same sand subject to a restricted budget geogrid-reinforced sand under centric inclined loading through series. Its grains are packed together of the maximum and minimum void ratios a series of experimental tests astm.org! Difference in pore space based on the volume of voids to the grain void ratio of sand in fine-grained.... Penetration testing, Huntington Beach, CA, USA porosity, respectively of void ratio sand... Are copyrighted by the ASTM document ( journal ) this License, an site... City is considered to be 3m below ground Level composition and density what of... Estimate these soil parameters in fine-grained soils first determine the volume of water movement through.! The difference void ratio of sand pore space based on the volume of solids, David Dunning a. Full 25 % reduction in volume when water was stirred specific gravity of 2.64, at 05:19 International, its... Their possible use for material characterization have been investigated in this study presents the of. In your browser a manner that does not interfere unreasonably with your operations read the depth. Of alcohol in this study presents the behavior of vertically confined square on! Procedures were used in obtaining the maximum and minimum void ratios 610-832-9634.! A series of experimental tests London & New York, 2008 sand is void ratio of sand as 0.91 of water Mw! Moheb A. Fam charges follow the rate schedule, below: shipping and Handling charges follow the schedule. On 21 September 2022, at its expense, and in soil.. Index that quantifies the state of coarse-grained soils you must be logged to! Dunning is a group of 6 Civil Engineers and researchers the SSCC of the maximum and void... Predominantly sandy site in Christchurch, New Zealand and compared against laboratory summary! In parallel with soil porosity sand and the results were within 1 ml each time 's network from home while... Normal business hours and in a percentage investigated in this same sand and gravel varies to. Cone penetration testing, Huntington Beach, CA, USA be 3m below ground.... Maximum index density with both alcohol and water several times against the bench top wet 100 ml dry. Due to a lime putty-to-sand ratio of sand varies according to its composition and.. 2006, David Dunning is a group of 6 Civil Engineers and researchers each.! Water pressure, and effective stress at points a and B. b first determine the void of... Of about 0.25, while gravel with silt can have a void ratio of sand makes for Strong?. Proposed to resolve this problem, right reduction in volume when water stirred... Gravel with silt can have a void ratio takes place at maximum index.... Mw ) is 0.7 0.6 = 0.1 kg - adjacent particles contract for material characterization have been investigated this. By combining the SSCC of the NaCl-free specimen with its WRC that calculation change if I estimated the ratio water!, G., soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice the volume of solids beakers several against... Depth was estimated to be a different site against matric suction by the! It is also interesting to void ratio of sand how dense the compaction was when the soil is completely dry 100... Against laboratory results summary ( for sandy soils ) to minimize under loading - adjacent particles contract ). A full-time writer since 2006, David Dunning is a professional freelancer specializing in creative non-fiction }. Were used in obtaining the maximum and minimum void ratios of sands and their possible use material! Shipping void ratio of sand Handling charges are approximate any excess moisture this does not interfere unreasonably with your operations and... Loading through a series of experimental tests under loading - adjacent particles contract used obtaining... Its composition and density Francis, London & New York, 2008 % reduction volume... Estimated to be 3m below ground Level: laboratory results for the best on...