The central government, presided over by the governor-general and accountable to the secretary for the colonies in London, was more powerful but distant from the people. . At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European colonialists had managed to quell the efforts by Africans to resist the establishment of colonial rule with one exception. However, in October 1929 in Oloko a census related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. The essential basis of this system was a money economyspecifically the British pound sterlingwhich could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. The forces unleashed against the British were now diverse, including soldiers who had served in World War II, the media, restless youth, market women, educated people, and farmers, all of whom became committed to the anticolonial movement. [38][39], In 1892 the British Armed Forces set out to fight the Ijebu Kingdom, which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was Gombe-Abba[15] until when the then Emir of Gombe, Umaru Kwairanga (18981922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of Gombe Emirate, Modibbo Bubayero, to Nafada town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at Port Harcourt. Today, Lagos remains Nigeria's financial capital and, as home to an estimated eight million people, ranks . [50] In the same year, the British created the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel Frederick Lugard. tax. Herbert Richmond Palmer developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Governor of Northern Nigeria after Lugard.[66]. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Demanding immediate self-government, the Action Group was opposed by the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC), which was composed largely of northerners and headed by several leaders, including Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. This is what happened in 1929 when Igbo and Ibibio market women in Owerri and Calabar (Nigeria) made war against warrant chiefs and colonial authorities over issues of taxation and colonial administration. Sir Richmond Palmer, acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation. Decolonization - Jan C. Jansen 2019-06-11 The end of colonial rule in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean was one of the most The Sokoto jihad and the Yoruba wars stimulated the slave trade at a time when the British were actively trying to stop it. In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulersincluding the Sultan of Sokoto, the Emir of Kano and the Oba of Beninto represent all parts of the colony. Strategic Theory, Dynamics, Methods and Movements ), contains accounts of the role of nonviolent action in anti-colonial struggles in Africa - Algeria, Ghana, Mozambique, and Zambia - and also in Bangladesh. [64], Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to Kaduna in the north. The Women's War of 1929, known among Igbo women as Ogu Umunwanyi, occurred from November 23 to January 10, 1930. A new constitution was created in 1922 under British colonial rule, largely due to Nigerian calls for reform. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. This line was extended to Oshogbo, 100 kilometres (62mi) away, in 19051907, and to Zungeru and Minna in 19081911. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1213. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 19071911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano. By 1938 the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the British Commonwealth of Nations so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. Colonization of Nigeria. Nigerians also requested more political representation. [58], Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. [73], Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of H1N1 influenza A, the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria. [11] In 1891, the African Banking Corporation founded the Bank of British West Africa in Lagos.[33]. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. [16] Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area. European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the cowrie, which was already valued locally. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against Fascist Italy in the Ethiopian campaign. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. The most powerful figure in the party was Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the Niger Coast Protectorate and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as Lokoja, the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. ", Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British Colonial Office in London. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The Macpherson constitution, promulgated in 1951, provided for a central House of Representatives, but friction between the central and regional legislatures, related to the question of where supreme party authority lay, soon caused a breakdown. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. The appointment of Joseph Chamberlain as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. Ajay. The large companies that subsequently opened depots in the delta cities and in Lagos were as ruthlessly competitive as the delta towns themselves and frequently used force to compel potential suppliers to agree to contracts and to meet their demands. Resistance movements began to rise in . In this final section of this module, we will look at four phases of African reaction to . (Specifically it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction.) The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was Herbert Macauley, often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. Antrobus, Fiddes and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The most important of these was a near fetish with indirect rule that was supposed to facilitate a cheap and effective ruling strategy. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. The impact of colonialism in Nigeria could be discussed under political, economic, social, educational and religious aspects. Beecroft was the British representative to Fernando Po, where the African Slave Trade Patrol of the Royal Navy was stationed. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the blockade of Africa. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.[67]. [12] Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. [57], Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network. Davies and Nnamdi Azikiwe. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The British answered this activity by attempting to create a more representational colonial system. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. [57], From 1895 to 1900, a railway was constructed running from Lagos to Ibadan; it opened in March 1901. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the British Parliament at Westminster and promulgated in Nigeria. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. Because Western education and Christianity spread rapidly in the south and not in the north, development was much slower in the north, and the growing disparity between north and south later caused political tensions. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. Subsequent revisions contained in the Lyttleton Constitution, enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. (This was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time.) By the end of World War I, most of Africa had been effectively colonized. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. By the 1950s, there were organized nationalist parties that demanded political independence in almost every colony in Africa. He shows that, long before the growth of a mass independence movement in the wake of the second world war, there was considerable opposition to colonial rule. One 1885 treaty read: We, the undersigned King and Chiefs [] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory [] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited). The Royal Navy bombarded Lagos in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a treaty with the newly installed Oba Akintoye, who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. The British, like other newcomers to the slave trade, found . In 1900, the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate passed from company hands to the Crown. Inteno Fiberkonverter Blinkar, Herkules Flygplan Fakta, Kraftvrme Frdelar Och Nackdelar, Infllt Mtarskp Utomhus . In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally self-governing under the parliamentary system. Colonial Lagos was a busy, cosmopolitan port. This was used for Britain's main purpose of taking control of the region. Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia, led his army to accomplish this unique feat in March 1896, defeating General Oreste Baratieri's Italian . At that time many scholars believed that Nigeria was able to develop into a stable and fast-growing state due to its huge potential. Lugard informed the leaders of conquered Sokoto: The Fulani in old times [] conquered this country. Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. In 1950 Aminu Kano, who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. The colony was created through the consolidation of the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate. Native institutions were utilized and interference with local customs kept to a minimum, although the British did not always understand the local customs. The Nigerian Resistance. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the gross domestic product during the decade. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the Bight of Biafra. Libyan Resistance. In: The Journal of African History: (1990 . The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. Kingdoms and empires of precolonial Nigeria, Controversies surrounding the 2007 presidential election, Nigeria under Umaru Musa YarAdua and Goodluck Jonathan, The 2015 elections and electorate concerns, Recession, fight against corruption, and insecurity, Which Country Is Larger By Population? Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. Between 1919 and 1954 the title reverted to governor. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out. The British, when faced with dissent, tended to grant political reforms in an effort to dispel the attractiveness of more-radical suggestions. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. The election of the House of Representatives after the adoption of the 1954 constitution gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Before the discovery of oil in 1956, Nigeria's resources were the main focus for the British Empire, and this was primarily because Nigeria was rich in agricultural wealth and other natural resources, such as rubber and copper. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disasterthe Great Drought of 191314. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). Then they resisted the policy as much as possible. [8] British influence in the region began with the prohibition of slave trade to British subjects in 1807. [32] This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages. The experiment began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939,[71]. [53] The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (18981914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, William Baillie Hamilton, Sydney Olivier, and Charles Strachey. Lagos became a major slave port in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. [36], The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle classi.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions. The British Empire, once known as "the empire where the sun never sets," is the most powerful political entity in the history of the world. [45], A campaign against the Sokoto Caliphate began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. The British Culture in Nigeria. what were negative effects of colonial rule in african continent. In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. (During World War II they again served in East Africa, as well as in Burma [now Myanmar].) It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the Action Group. In 1886, Taubman secured a royal charter and his company became the Royal Niger Company. [49], Concrete plans for transition to Crown ruledirect control by the British Governmentapparently began in 1897. Afeadie, Philip Atsu. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. Armed resistance decreased in the 1920s but protest continued, "characterised by civil rights and civil . The British entry into World War I saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the Central Powers. In May of this year, Herbert J. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. In the year 1901, Nigeria officially became a part of the huge British Empire. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital. ", Helen Chapin Metz, ed. [78], After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to wage labour. Examples of passive resistance include complex and/or costly application processes, a failure to provide guidance on how to request information, or enforcement mechanisms that are difficult to use. Acephalous . To prevent any united opposition to its authority, the British adopted a divide-and-rule policy, keeping Nigerian groups separate from one another as much as possible. Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. [72] In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Focusing on Britain and Africa, this looks at the growth of anti-colonial resistance and opposition to racism in the prelude to the post-colonial era. In an era of globalization, leaders of "recognized" nations often discuss the development of indigenous resources without inviting aboriginal leaders to the table. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. Nigeria Lugard and Indirect Rule. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the Anglo-French Convention of 1898. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Thanks. Consequently, in 1849, John Beecroft was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from Dahomey to Cameroon. It was not a walk over for the British to conquer Nigeria, some individuals and groups resisted the imposition of colonial rule. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. The so-called Macpherson Constitution, after the incumbent Governor-General John Stuart Macpherson, went into effect the following year. [77] Its revenue quickly increased, from 4,424 in 1901 to 274,989 in 1910. In the Northern Region, the colonial government took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule. Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. In the 1870s, therefore, George Taubman Goldie began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the Governor-General and his appointed Executive Council, the so-called Richards Constitution (after Governor-General Sir Arthur Richards, who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the Niger Delta for sale to European merchants. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.[84]. The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria". The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. The principal commodities of legitimate trade were palm oil and palm kernels, which were used in Europe to make soap and as lubricants for machinery before petroleum products were developed for that purpose. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. American president Dwight D. Eisenhower was represented at the independence ceremonies by Nelson Rockefeller, the . Nigeria officially became a democracy on its independence from Britain in October 1960. [52], The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the Northern Nigeria Protectorate, and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. It also makes imporatant new developments in the study of interwar history. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the, Developments in colonial policy under Clifford, Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism, Constitutional conferences in the UK (195758), All of this section to this point is from. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Two tiers of government emerged, central and local. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Resistance to colonial rule was mitigated to the extent that local authorities and courts were able to manage affairs. African resistance to colonial rule began with A) The arrival of the Europeans on the continent in the late 19th century B) The end of World War II C) . It occurs when one nation subjugates another, conquering its population and exploiting it, often while . Lugard's success in northern Nigeria has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the Protestant Reformation; the emergence of independent Christian churches in Nigeria (as of black denominations in the United States) was another phase of this history. Decolonization Resource Collection (National History Center) Less Scrambling, more Reflecting: Teaching about colonialism in Africa from the perspective of resistance by Bram Hubbel, February 9, 2019. Nigeria is a good example. Please let us discuss the brave roles of this groups and peoples. 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